Equal Opportunity & Diversity

According to (Purbeck, 2010) stated that equality and diversity is not about treating everyone the same but being aware that people are different, being able to recognize those differences and treat people with fairness and dignity.
Equality and diversity are often used in the same context and can be confused by some for having a similar meaning. Although both words are similar and usually relate to the same topics there is a subtle difference. Equality is simply the quality of being the same as the other and treated the same regardless of individual or cultural differences. Not only does equality exist in the dimensions of culture but others such as age, race, sex, physical attributes and religious beliefs all of which are equality in practice. Whilst equality looks at being the same and treated fairly, diversity almost goes beyond that because it is more to do with understanding the uniqueness of others through acceptance and respect. Diversity explores these differences and even goes as far as celebrating them. In simple terms equality is more about treating people equally where as diversity is about understanding the differences and adapting them in the best possible way.

The Age Legislation Act 2006


The age legislation act coming into force has many potential impacts on employers. An example of this is if an employer discriminates against age, it might diversify the workforce by employing older people and could have a negative influence on existing morale or team cohesion. In certain sectors a younger workforce may provide more profits so changing them may reduce the income of an organisation. In addition to this an organisation might have to fun different types of training for the older generation. Under new legislation, employers must provide access to help employees of all ages and this could include hearing aids etc.


Many stereotypes come with age and there are different stereotypes about younger and older people with regards to work. Younger individuals seem to hold an immature/lazy stereotype and in many peoples mind are seen to be naive and outspoken. In addition to this, younger people are sometimes viewed as being aimless in the media with a spotlight on gang violence. On the other hand the older generation are looked at in a different way; they are seen to hold experience (which is likely true) although they are viewed not to be as useful as to younger individuals in relation to manual labour.An example of this is their knowledge about technology. It is usually put into question as we tend to think they have little or no grip on the new advances in the technological world. At times older people are even seen as useless with some people, they go as far as saying that they should retire regardless of what they have to offer. (Gregory, 2001) agreed and said that 'although negative age stereotypes abound and employers continue to view age, not in terms of experience and stability but as mental and physical deterioration as well as inflexibility and lack of enthusiasm. Data supporting these stereotypes are nonexistent'.

Organisations have a key role in changing these attitudes, and they can start by giving younger people more responsibility at work. An example of this is giving younger people promotions, putting them in charge of projects where suitable or simply recognizing their efforts. Personally, i like to have responsibility as it motivates me to achieve. In my experience, out of the jobs i have had two of these have promoted me and treat me the same even though i was one of the youngest. With regards to older individuals, organisations should let them continue working as long as they have the skills required and as long both parties agree. This should be the case no matter what age the older person reaches. Flexible hours should be given and the time of work is another possibility, this should be done in an attempt to make an older employee feel comfortable and confident to carry on working as it may effect there work. Through some of these ideas stereotypes on younger and the older generation should be changed even if they are change in a small way.
Below is a link on what young people think about being placed in to these stereotypes and how i has a negative effect on all younger people.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2009/apr/15/stereotypes-young-people

B&Q, Asda, Tesco and their Equal Opportunities

I have visited the websites for B&Q, Asda and Tesco to look at how they give opportunities to their employees and how they are treat fair. B&Q states that is expects from its employees an open mind about changes, good customer services, a passion to deliver and a flexible approach to the company; if done so they will deliver flexible approaches, a far employer who promotes equal opportunities, friendly atmosphere and the support in their staffs career development. It is shown through a speech bubble claiming that over a quarter of their staff are over 50. In addition to this they offer to help employees develop through apprenticeships and NVQ's, done whilst at the company. (B&Q, 2012) proudly stated the following "B&Q believe in investing in our people, and we're proud that many of our employees develop their skills and careers within the company".

Asda calls its employees its colleagues, looking at the website their is a great mixture of people varying from age to race and therefore do not believe that any discrimination is talking place. Companies these days however have to not discriminate as customers will deem upon them and they will loose customers. However, when Asda talk about its workers it only has the name of its senior employees and this may make workers who arnt at that level yet uncomfortable as they are the mains for the company's recruitment process. Adsa is known to me to be an extremely diverse store, their equality is shown on the website as they pay under 18s the same rate as they pay everyone else. They put this down to treating everyone the same (Asda, 2012).

Tesco has the same principle as Asda. However, Tesco are looking for committed people who are willing to complete given tasks. Also employees has to be passionate about the jobs and most of all very motivated as the organisation is one of the worlds leading retailers. In return Tesco gives employees a safeguard for their future by helping them to get more from their money as well as looking after their health. Even on their application form they state that they recruit regardless of an applicants background, sex, age etc.


Conclusion


Overall i believe that B&Q is more successful at keeping its equal opportunities true as it has the most simplest way to recruit without to many questions and from the website it looks like it has a mixture of people from all ages and backgrounds. 'An equal society protects and promotes equal, real freedom and substantive opportunity to live in the ways people value and would choose, so that everyone can flourish' (Bagilhole, 2009).
 Equal opportunities are very important to organisations in these current times especially as it is being scrutinized more than ever. Organisations must embrace the fact that treating all employees and potential employees are good for the company image and more importantly it is good for a company to treat everyone equal due to the effect it can have on individuals. Going everyone the same chance is something which may not be money minded but it is something which is extremely good and ethical.




Bibliography:

Bagilhole, B. (2009) Understanding Equal Opportunities and Diversity: The Social Differentiation's and Intersections of Inequality. Pg 35

Gregory, R, F. (2001) Age Discrimination in the American Workplace: Old at a Young Age. Pg 29.


The Guardian (2009) 'It seems that we can only be interesting if we are smoking, snorting or stabbing'. {Online Source: http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2009/apr/15/stereotypes-young-people} Accessed on 04/05/2012.

Flexible Working

Flexible working could be defined as a work practice that allows the employees the freedom to decide how the work will be done, e.g. working part time less than 35 hours a week to deciding how they would co-ordinate with their work rota with the other employees within the organisation. The employer sets the hour of work and times the employee needs to be able to work. Flexible working is now becoming more popular than in the past as staff are demanding to have have flexible hours to work so that they can have a work-life balance. Many companies however are offering this in order to retain its employees as it gives staff a chance to fit other commitments  and activities around there work life. (Pilbeam and Corbridge, 2010) suggested that 'flexible working was the ability of an organisation to adapt the size, composition, responsiveness and cost of the people inputs required to achieve organisational objectives'.

Three companies that offer flexible working

1) BT Call Centre: They offer its employees flexible working as they believe that employees should enjoy the physical and mental benefit of work-life balance and therefore offer flexible working. BT believe by working in a partnership with each other they can establish alternative working arrangements by ensuring that they are making their business more productive, cost effect effective and energized. British Telecom states the it understands that people have other interests outside work, and offer employees with flexible working in order for their employees to be motivated and therefore work harder.
2) B&Q: B&Q offers all its permanent employees with flexible working hours to suit their needs, they give them opportunities to achieve more balance between work and other commitments. Another thing they do is provide its employees with an enhancing 6.6 weeks annual leave per year.. B&Q also offers job shares where two people split there shift and offer part time working to suit there employees needs.      
3) Asda: Asda offers it employees with flexi-time where employees could improve their work-life balance. 'Asda flex' programme is aimed at encouraging its staff whether hourly paid or salaried, working within any part of the business to work flexible hours to suit their needs. Asda also offers it employees to take up to three years unpaid leave (career break) and also offer female workers a five day paid leave for IVF treatment and time off to donate blood, not to mention a 12 week paid leave for organ donation. Asda believe that by creating a flexible working approach they can support colleagues with their individual needs and emphasize on their core values.

Different types of flexibility

Part time - Working part time can be a good way of balancing your work and your personal commitments. If you work part time, you have the right to be treated fairly in comparison to your full time colleagues. There are no specific number of hours that makes someone full or part time, but a full time worker will usually work 35 hours or more a week. The reasons people work part time vary for each individual. It may be that you simply want a different work-life balance, or you may have caring responsibilities. One disadvantage of part time working is that the employee may not be up to date with the potential changes in the organisation. For example if there is a new computer system and the full time employees have been trained on it the part time worker will struggle to use the new system and extra training may have to be provided. (Drew et al, 1998) said that ' part time workers are more extensively used in establishments which introduces part-time employment for reasons which might be described as being part of a corporate strategy'.

Working from home - Homeworkers have their jobs (usually practical work) based in their home. Teleworkers also do their normal (usually office based) work from home. Both kinds of homeworking have potential drawbacks and advantages. Employment rights will depend on whether you are a worker, an your self-employed. A homeworker is anyone who only works from home. Many homeworkers in the UK are employed in manufacturing, making a wide range of items from footwear to car components. The main difference between 'homeworking' and 'teleworking' is that teleworkers, who may work full time from home, are usually doing office work rather than practical work and frequently make use of computers and other electronic devices to do their work and communicate directly with their office base. A benefit for working at home/teleworking is that it can be more flexible about the hours you work, allowing you to meet commitments at home e.g. childcare. A drawback could be that your employer is likely to insist that they must inspect your workstation to make sure its suitable, meaning you'll have to let them into your home. Management control is more difficult in multiple home locations than in a centralized office. Except at senior managerial and professional levels, working at home runs counter to established control mechanisms and policies of most corporations and government agencies (Guile, 2011).

Term time working - This is similar to part time working as it enables the employee to take more time off around school holidays. The main advantage if an employee is that if they have children, they can look after them during holidays and not worry about babysitters etc. An advantage to the employer, is that they can book in a replacement employee to cover the shift. However, a big issue with term time working is that a lot of companies get very busy during holidays and therefore may not have the staff to cover. For example, during the Christmas period when schools are closed. (McLaughin, 1992) said that 'working from home (8 per cent) and school term-time working 9 (6 per cent) were uncommon, whilst other practices such as school-hours shifts and regular seasonal or temporary work were very rare'.

Compressed hours - This is working your agreed hours over fewer days. An example would be if an an employer allows and employer to work less than 5 days a week, each day they missed must be made up by working overtime on the days that they do work. An advantage of this is that it enables the employee to take time off when they need but also get paid for the full working week as long they make up all the time. A disadvantage to working compressed hours is that the manager may want an employee to work on a certain day, however if they have already made up the time they wont have to come into work. According to the International Labour Office (Clerc, 1985) the most common example is a 40-hour week compressed into four days instead of the conventional five, with a longer working day of ten hours instead of eight.

Zero hours - This zero hours is a contract designed to create an 'on call' arrangement between employers and employee. The contract is used to cope with varying staff requirements where the employer is under no obligation to offer and employee work but when it does, the employee is required to accept the offer. An advantage to the employee is that it is a lot more flexible than being on a set contract allowing for a better work life balance. An advantage to the employer on the other hand is that they only need to give work and pay the employee when they are needed. An issue with this type of working is that employees could become very tired if shift are to frequent and could lead to mistakes and conflict in the workplace. In the UK according to (French et al, 2011) many employers (around 22%) use zero hour contracts in order to deal with work fluctuations, particularly seasonal variations. In main land Europe however, there is little evidence for this pattern of work.

Flextime - According to (Tatara, 2005) flextime is all the time designated as that part of the schedule of work hours within which the employee may choose his time of arrival and departure from the office. An advantage to the employee is that if they are busy in the mornings they can start late and the opposite if they are busy at night. An advantage to the manager is that employees will be working at their full potential if they are happy to start when they want. however a disadvantage comes if too many people want to start at a certain time and some cant, this could cause conflict in the workplace or staff may loose moral.

(Mooney et al, 2012) Studies have shown that flexible work arrangements reduce work-life conflict and increase job satisfaction e.g. Best Buy Co. Inc developed a Results-Only Work Environment (ROWE), which allows employees and managers to control when and where they work as long as they get the job done. A controlled study found that employees participating in ROWE benefited from the reduced work-family conflict (Kelly et al, 2011). This blog has shown that flexible working is very important for employees and employers for satisfaction of both parties. Employees need time for personal things they need to do out of work and employers, as they want the best of of their workforce. Overall flexible working has many advantages with a few difficulties that can arise from it but can help and increase production and morale in the workplace.



Bibliography:

Asda Launches Flexible Working {Online} Available from http://www.personneltoday.com/articles/2008/05/19/45907/asda-launches-flexible-working-scheme.html {Accessed on 24/04/2012}

BT Work Life Blance {Online} Available from http://www.btplc.com/Careercentre/WhyjoinBT/Worklifebalance/Worklifebalance.htm {Accessed on 18/04/2012}

B&Q Benefits and Rewards {Online} Available from http://www.diy.com/diy/jsp/corporate/content/careers/our_roles/benefits.jsp {Accessed on 24/04/2012}

Clerc, J, M. International Labour Office (1985) Introduction to Working Conditions and Environment. International Labour Office: Geneva. Pg 154

Drew, E.P. Emerek, R. Mahon, E. (1998) Women, work, and the family in Europe. Routledge Pg 103


French, R. Rayner, C. Rees, G. (2011) Organsizational Behaviour. 2nd Edition. Pg 270


Guile, B, R. (2011) Managing Stress: Principles and Strategies for Health and Well-Being. Nation Academy of Engineering. Pg 343


McLaughlin, E. (1992) Understanding Unemployment: New Perspectives on Active Labour Market Policies. Routledge. Pg 176


Mooney, L.A. Knox, D. Schacht, C. (2012) Understanding Social Problems. 8th Edition.


Tatara, I, E. CCh Incorporated (2005) HR how-to: Work-life Benefits. CCH KnowledgePoint: Essential Hr Solutions. Pg. 107






                                                                                                     

Social Corporate Responsibility

Corporate social responsibility is a 'commitment to improve community well-being through business practices and contributions of corporate resources' (Kotler et al, 2005). These commitments to improve community well-being should be a voluntary commitment that a business chooses to implement. Corporate social responsibility is about understanding 'your business impact on a wider world and considering how you can use this impact in a positive way' (Anon, 2011).
(Mullins, 2007) described corporate social responsibility as a concept which gives rise to how a company should conduct itself within a society, and different views on what a business is for and how it should act. Social responsibilities arise from the interdependence of organisations, society and the environment.

Good examples of social responsibility at the corporate level can be found in varied ways. It is possible for companies to practice good social responsibility without compromising investor demands for profitability. In other words, having a good moral compass is not impossible in today's demanding global economy.
An example is the Fair Trade Policies:
- The area of enforcing fair trade practices is an area that demonstrates a good corporate moral compass. Some corporations resist the temptation to gouge the general public with unnecessarily high process for items that are essential to life itself. Ethical pricing practices represents a great opportunity for any corporation to demonstrate their concern for the social welfare of their trade areas.
Another example is the Green Policies:
- This example is far from universal, but great social responsibility is demonstrated by those corporations that are employing environmentally friendly technology in attempts to help preserve our environment. Third world manufacturers who continue their polluting ways demonstrate their total lack of concern for social responsibility. Refusing to deal with pollution manufacturers is a great example of exhibiting good social responsibility.

The Hidden Face of Primark Scandal (McDougall, 2008) 
The Huge fashion store Primark sacked three of its suppliers after investigation for the BBC's Panorama and The Observer uncovered children labouring in Indian refugee camps to produce some its cheapest garments. In the article (referenced below) they reveal the brutal reality of a supply chain that sees children as young as 11 sewing R-shirts which cost shoppers just a few pounds to buy in high streets across Britian.

Example of Corporate Social Responsibility in Apple 

An organisation that is from the FTSE4GOOD list that is an excellent example demonstration of the CSR in practice is Apple. There are three examples of corporate social responsibility in this globally branded company:
1) Apple have a re-use and recycling programme where they are committed to the environment as they are finding the best ways to re-use and recycle their electronic equipment at the end of its use. The products include Iphone, IPad and the Macintosh computers which they find ways to recycle and re-use, whether its replacing parts etc. Apple even offer people money for their old equipment as they can use parts from old products for new products which would decrease the cost of stock needed and beneficially increase profits. All Apple asks is for is users to tell them about their old equipment and Apple will let them know if it qualifies for re-use, if not customers can just recycle of re-sell if possible.

2) Another example of CRS in this company is that Apple are committed to their supply chain and that all their suppliers provide safe working conditions, as well as treating staff with respect and using a environmentally responsible manufacturing process. Apple (2012) state there is 'prevention of hiring underage workers and prohitbiting discriminatory policies at our suppliers'. They also ensure the workers are safe at work and have a good working environment by providing safety eqiupment and protective gear for workers to wear so they do not put themselves at risk. The staff are also given safety training so they know how to stay safe at all times whilst they are working and producing goods.

3) Lastly Apple are working on and putting into practices ways of minimizing their carbon footprint in a number of ways. Firstly, by producing smaller package. Efficient packaging designs not only reduces materials and waste but also helps reduce the emissions produced during transportation. Apple has experts who develop product packaging so that it is slim, light and protective. They are also reducung their transportation distribution miles to be more environmentally friendly, so they cut down on the pollution.


In Conclusion examples of corporate social responsibility can be found in abundance. That being said, examples of a lack of social responsibilty can also be found. Every individual can become a force for good by suppporting those corporations and demonstrate their intent to act responsibly at all levels. Consumer pressure can be a strong force contributing to improved social responsibilty by all corportations who deal with the consuming public. Being a large interantional business knowing that corporate responsibility is increasingly a 'driving factor in brand prefence and purchase behaviour' (Grinton, 2010) that they are dedicated to making such a significant change.






Bibliography:

Apple (2012) Supllier Responsibility at Apple {Online}Available from www.apple.com/supplierresponsibility {Accessed on 17/04/2012}

Anon (2011) Corporate Social Responsibility {Online} Available from Business Link: http://www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotg/action/layer?topicId=1075408468 {Accessed On 13/04/2012}

Ftse4good (2012) FTSE Research and Publications {Online} Available from: www.ftse.com  {Accessed on 17/04/2012}

Kotler, P. Lee, N. (2005) Corporate Social Responsibility: Doing the most good for your company and your cause. 1st Edition: Canada.


McDougall, D. (2008) The hidden face of Primark Fashion. {Online Newspaper} Available from The Observer: The Guardian: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/jun/22/india.humanrights {Accessed on 17/04/2012}

Mullins, L.J. (2007) Management and Organisation behaviour. 9th Edition. Harlow: Prentice Hall FT


Schmidt, B. (2011) Corporate Social Responsibility {Online} Available from Helium: http://www.helium.com/knowledge/223938-good-examples-of-corporate-social-responsibility {Accessed on 17/04/2012}

Perception & Communication

Perception often occurs when people gather a stereotype of what they perceive a person to be like, (Mullins, 2010) suggested that we all have our own 'world', our own way of looking at and understanding our environment and the people within it. This could be due to the many things which differentiate people such as age, gender, race, attitudes, values, beliefs, past experiences, stereotypes and background. Things seen or heard in the media is often the underlying cause of these perceptions and interpretations. (Robbins et al, 2010) suggested that perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give a meaning to their environment.

Perceptions are often made with being in the presence of someone within thirty seconds, very quickly. These first impressions are often what influences the way a person is perceived. Within a business environment this often occurs in selection or in an interview situation, however the interviewer needs to be fair and treat candidates equally. For instance, if the candidate is a graduate, on one hand they have good qualifications and are intelligent where as on the other hand was previously as student, who are notoriously stereotyped as lazy. This kind of stereotypes are difficult to hide however they may exist because they're true, therefore need to be taken into consideration however they are often a representation of the minority.

Communication is a key skill involved within the workplace as its involved within nearly 70% of employees time at work. Communication is important to keep control and inform employees of whats happening within the organisation, this in turn helps to motivate employees. People management created an article about 'how to improve staff communication', using these recommendations it is possible to relate these ideas to improving communication between Buckinghamshire New University and its students. The CIPD employee outlook survey provided some interesting results regarding how well employees felt they understood what was going on in their firms. According to the survey less than half the respondents felt well informed within their organisation. People Management magazine have therefore put together a plan to create an effective communication strategy.
Within this strategy one of the key points was to 'ensure that leaders realize the importance of communication and take time to share their vision'. Within any business or organisation it is important that a shared sense of purpose is established as it enables employees to understand the goal the are working towards. A common problem in many organisations is that senior management often delegate communication to junior managers. Employees like to able to put a face to management and feel like they can approach them if there is a problem. This can also be applied to Buckinghamshire New University and it students. Students tend to only be aware of their lecturers and personal tutors, in order for the student to feel more involved within the university it would be better if the senior management were made more well known by attending  certain university events for example. If senior management were to arrange a meeting once a term held in on of the lecture halls wheres students are able to attend then they would feel more involved and would understand more about what is going on within the university.
The second key point made in the article by people management was to 'create communication that is two- way, not only top-town'. This would be an effective form of communication to implement within the University so that students could easily talk to the correct member of staff. Top down communication refers to Handy's role culture which suggests a chain network where the person at the top directs the flow of information to the bottom of the chain. (Mullins 2010) suggests that Handy developed the ideas of Harrison to create four types of organisational culture , one of which being role culture position is power. A greek temple has been used as imagery to support Handy's theory of role culture with the apex of the temple being where the decisions are made, this can be seen in the diagram below. The pillars then reflect the functional aspect of the organisation which takes orders from the apex. According to Handy's role culture it is most appropriate within organisations which that not constantly change in, for example; local authorities, government departments, public utilities and the public sector in general. This sort of culture finds it extremely difficult to change rapidly. The role culture is typified by rationality and size.

Two way communications however is where there is no set way in which employees communicate. This means that everyone is active within the communication process. If this system were to be implemented within Buckinghamshire New University then i feel that students would be more confident and able to approach management and have their say. This will help students feel more involved within the university and would therefore improve communication between students and the university. A diagram of a chain network can be seen below.

Using the article from People Management it can be identified that the third way in which Buckinghamshire New University can improve communication with its students would be to measure the success of the universities action. The article suggested that it is important for organisations to conduct surveys to understand the effectiveness of the organisations internal communications. Relating this back to our university and its students it would be useful for it to conduct regular surveys so that they can measure its success. Currently the university asks students to complete surveys on the modules in their course but not about the university on the whole. For the university to improve its communications with its students it would be advisable to create a survey about how students think communication could be improved. The university could then use these results to make the necessary improvements.

Personal Experience 
Personally i don't think i judge people on looks, but definitely on first impression. When i am introduced to a new group of people anywhere i am very quiet and generally just observe peoples expressions, gestures, confidence, what they say and how they say it etc. I know i am good at reading people and enjoying working people out, once i feel comfortable to excel myself i do with confidence. I have not really had that many situations where i have perceived someone (apart from Susan Boyle on her Britains Got Talent Audition) and then thought different of them, i always give people a chance.
A time i do remember where my initial perception of someone was incorrect was at an induction night back in 2003 for the Army Cadet Force. Me and a friend turned up 10 minutes late and found that the induction parade had already started, when we walked in and the commanding officer sent us both out of the parade hall and had a go at us for being late on our first day. He was very tall and very big and had a drill cain in his right hand (a pace stick to measure distance of feet whilst marching, not used for hitting), this gave me the impression that he was very strict as his serious face was going redder and redder whilst he was telling us off. The first impression of him was very different to what he is really like as we caught him at a bad time. After committing to the unit i got to know him very well on a personal and disciplined level and he played a big part in my 6 year career which he helped me with, gaining the second best cadet in the United Kingdom and the highest ranked in the North East.

Conclusion
Perception and communication are both essential tool within the business environment as it has a significant impact on how the organisation is run. With regards to improving communication between the university and its students it can be concluded that firstly a two way communication system should be implemented so that students can have their say. The university management needs to make itself more well know so that students can feel part of the bigger picture and understand the common goal. Finally the university needs to measure its success by conducting surveys to receive students opinions, these results would help them a lot in attracting new students to the university.







Bibliography:

Mullins, L,J. (2009) Management & Organisational Behaviour. 9th Edition. Essex: Pearson Education Limited

Robbins, S.P. & Judge, T. (2010) Essentials of Organisational Behavior. 1st Edition. Prentice Hall

Lancs. Perception Images-chapter four (online) Available from: Lancs.ac.uk (Assecced 7th April 2012)


 Rebecca Clarke (2010) People Management: How to improve staff communication [online source] Available from: http://www.peoplemanagement.co.uk/pm/articles/2010/07/how-to-improve-staff-communication.htm Published on 15th July 2010 [Accessed: 08/04/2012]

Managing Change Toolkit (2009) Culture - Charles Handy [Online Source] Available from: http://www.lindsay-sherwin.co.uk/guide_managing_change/html_overview/05_culture_handy.htm Copyright Linsey Sherwin [Accessed; 08/04/2012]

Conflict

'Conflict, as it is used in everyday speech, is a vague term and associated with it are many vague concepts. While in principle the issue of definition is a question of decision about how to use words, in practice definitions are already located in a linguistic context and have prior associations' (Nicholson, 1992).
I think conflict is present when there's an incompatibility of goals arising from the opposing behaviours at the individual, group or at organisational level. It could be argued that conflict is a behaviour intended to obstruct the achievement of some other persons goals.

The objective of any organisation should be designed to ensure that all goals and objectives are met, for the needs of both the company and the individual. If these are not met conflict may occur. There are many different types of conflict that can happen in and out the workplace, the most common causes are the following:
<> Poor communication
<> Lack of teamwork
<> Lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities
<> Different attitudes, values or perceptions
<> Poor or inadequate organisational structure
<> Disagreements about needs, goals, priorities or interests

(Mullins, 2010) states that there are nine different sources of conflict which can occur at anytime. These are:
- Difference in perception: This could be when an individual sees something in a different way to others and therefore conflict may come naturally without out meaning to.
- Limited resources: This could be when there are not enough facilities or correct equipment to carry out the job. This could lead to complaints etc and protest.
- Division and separation into departments: For example working in a different area to others, this may to lead to jealousy or the worker may not get on with their new colleagues.
- Overlapping and interlinking work activities: When an individual starts doing work that is not relevant to them or in their job role.
- Role conflict: Clash in the sense that an individual is doing something which may not be in there job description.
- Inequitable treatment: This is when you get treated differently to other people in your workplace who carry out the same job role as you.
- Violation of territory: Poor working area and conditions could lead to stress and cause high conflict in the organisation, it will also decrease the morale majorly.
- Environmental changes: Changes in the work place and having to do something different.
- Individual conflict: Clashes of personality or behaviour, this is the worst type and most often the most common, it usually starts by another source of conflict occurring first such as inequitable treatment etc.

Below is an a little example i found of conflict in the workplace. Enjoy!

When i have previously worked i haven't experienced a high level of conflict personally but have witnessed it. I worked at a Papa Johns restaurant and there was a team leader who treat certain waiters differently to others. This led to waiters to rebel against him and didn't take him serious, for example he would tell them to do something and instead of promptly doing it they would take their time and effected their morale as they didn't feel equal. This was closely watched by the manager and informed the leader to stop after talking to the waiter and everything was ok after that, for the period i was their. I personally think the manager told them to start acting professional as if guests were to see that happen in the restaurant it would have a bad look on the organisation.

French & Raven (1959) identified five main sources of power which are reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, referent power and expert power.
Reward power is founded on the staff's insight that the leader comprises the capability and means to gain recompenses intended for those who fulfill with the organisation's orders. An example would be for the leader to promote the subordinate into a higher level with increased responsibilities.
Coercive power is founded on fright and the staff's awareness that the leader has the skill to penalize or to generate adverse consequences meant for those who do not conform to commands. An example would be dismissal by the leader, which is the opposite of the reward.
Legitimate power is founded on the staff's view that the leader is reasonable to implement guidance as for the leaders role in the organisation. An example would be for leaders and managers of the organisation where their roles are more important than the nature of association with others.
Referent power is founded on the individuals discovery with the leader. The leader employs guidance because of apparent desirability; own physical characteristics, status or what is call 'charisma'. For instance, specific managers may not have the right to issue rewards or punish staff, but they are respected for their job role.
Expert power is founded on the individuals insight of the leader as somebody who is proficient and who encloses various distinct acquaintance or capabilities in a specified capacity. An example would be for roles such as human resource manager who is one of the specialists.

French & Raven's original five-category framework has been criticized for being too simplistic and for missing some important bases of power in addition to those suggested according to (Porter et al, 2003). Sources of power that are difficult to categorize under the French and Raven framework (e.g. persuasion, advice, attractiveness) are noted by Bell, Walker, and Willer (2000).

Work related stress means employees taking a lot of time off work. This is not good because companies will have less people at work which means work will not get done, plus they will still have to pay there employers for the time they are off on sick leave. The article i came across when conducting research was one called, Generation Y: They've arrived at work with a new attitude' and was taken from USA Today. This is a company with a high population in quote 'freshly minted' graduate students who are overseeing employees who are old enough to their parents. Most people do not like younger people telling them what to do even if its work or just generally as its a sign of respect, as you can imagine this will cause tension in the work place. Another conflict element said in this argument was the dress code as people were taking it to new levels without the companies consent, this led to people arguing and having differences on opinion.



In conclusion conflict is a big issue that causes dissatisfaction to people and it can occur at any time in the workplace or in everyday life. There are nine sources of conflict that Mullins states that can make conflict arise. French & Ravens also have a good theory on sources of power. Although most conflicts are inevitable, leaders and organisations need to use their power to ease off with the conflict disrupting the well-being of their business. I feel that they should look upon whether the conflict that occurred can actually heap the organisation progress for its future innovation. Overall the sources of power are my main finding as it shows organisations trying to control and own power over the employees.




Bibliography:

Mullins, L.J. (2010) Management and Organisational Behaviour. 8th Edition. Harlow: Pearson.

Nicholson, M. (1992) Rationality and the Analysis of International Conflict: Cambridge Studies in International Relations. Pg 11


Porter, L.W, Angle, H.L & Allen, R.W (2003) Organizational Influence Process. 2nd Edition. Pg 6


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d9IMmXrI59I (2010) Uk Mediation: Episode 1 - What causes conflict?

Article: http://www.usatoday.com/money/workplace/2005-11-06-gen-y_x.htm By Stephanie Armour (2005) USA Today

Leadership

Within a business it can become difficult to differentiate between leadership and management, so what is the difference?

Leadership is defined as ' a relationship through which one person influences the behaviour or actions of other people' (Mullins 2007). A leader within a business will work with employees on a close scale, have a working relationship with the employees and ultimately have the ability to influence what they do leading them in their work and motivating them. Leaders need to have a number of different skills to make this possible as without such skills they will not be able to motivate, encourage people to work and improve sectors.

How is this different to Management?

Management with in a business can be seen as 'The structures and processes involved in directing an organisation towards the achievement of it objective' (Worthington & Britton 2009). This is different to leadership as a manager is a person who is there to get what they need done whether that means by exerting force on employees or granting them flexibility and freedom to complete the work. Compared to a leader a manager can be seen as a middle man between the different levels of the business who implement policy. 

The Big Jigsaw Puzzle

Alan Cutler came up with a leadership model called the Jigsaw Puzzle. He states that there is no such thing as the perfect leader, leaders are human after all. However, that is not to say that people who hold leadership positions should not continually seek to improve their leadership skills. In order to measure a managers leadership capabilities we need to identify what are the essential qualities of an effective leader. Cutler said:

- A leader is Visionary

- A leader sets Example

- A leader understands what Motivates each member

- A leader builds supportive Relationships

- A leader empowers others to reach their Potential

- A leader understands the power of Communications

These are the six components that each leader must work hard at continually and consistently apply and most importantly demonstrate in all he or she does. Unless the six pieces are in place, the leader will not achieve his or her potential, nor will those looking to following their leader. No one aspiring to lead a high-performing team can do so if they are ' one piece of the short of the jigsaw'. (Mullins 2008) says that cutler believes that leadership is not such a difficult role if condensed to these essential elements and has devised a set of questions to help leaders to find out if they have all the necessary pieces of the jigsaw.

Another theory i looked at was the Ashridge Study:
Ashridge Studies identified four broad management styles and they were: Tells, Sells, Consults and Joins.
- Tells is when the manager makes all the decisions and issues instructions which must be obeyed without question.
- Sells is when the manager makes all the decisions but explains them to subordinates, and attempts to motivate subordinates to carry them out willingly.
- Consults is when the manager confers with subordinates and takes their views and feelings into account, but remains the right to make the final decisions.
- Joins is when the leader and follower make the decisions together, on the basis of consensus or compromise and agreement.

Types of Leadership Style's
(Chemers, 1997) said 'Somewhere between the broad personality trait and the specific behaviour sits the "leadership style". Styles reflect relatively stable patterns of response to social situations. For a brief period, leadership research focused on the possibility that these styles might be better explanatory constructs than personality traits had be proven'.
(Kurt Lewin, 1938) came up with these three types of leadership styles:

Autocratic Leaders make decisions without consulting their teams. This is considered appropriate when decisions genuinely need to be taken quickly, when there's no need for input, and when team agreement isn't necessary for a successful outcome. The British Military is a prime example of this as they enforce autocratic leadership throughout their rank structure.

Democratic Leaders allow the team to provide input before making a decision, although the degree of input can vary from leader to leader. This type of style is important when team agreement matters, but it can be quite difficult to manage when there are lots of different perspectives and ideas. An example of a democratic leader is President John F. Kennedy but he was also a charismatic leader as well.

Laissez-faire Leaders don't interfere; they allow people within the team to make many decisions. This works well when the team is highly capable and motivated, and when it doesn't need close monitoring or supervision. However, this style can arise because the leader is lazy or distracted and then this approach can fail. A good example of this is the Danish Government, the Danish can smoke marijuana and are allowed open prostitution and other things that other democratic and autocratic governments could not do.

Linking Example with Theory
One leading from history that has shown an obvious strong autocratic leadership streak (although not used positively) was Russia's Joseph Stalin. He used his unique skills advancing from the role of general sectary in the Bolshevik party and being generally unknown to a incredibly strong leader known worldwide. By using his skills Stalin won over support by performing speeches to the public and bombarding streets with propaganda promoting communism and a 'better life' under it. He also made sure he looked at all the different social classes and groups within Russia from the peasants to the rich promising them each something they wanted.

Another example of autocratic leadership is the British Army (organisational example). This style, though many ways flawed, works oftentimes due to the culture of the military. Often if people are given choices, freedom and flexibility in the Army, they do not know what to do with it. Further, many people in subordinate positions disdain any ambiguity due to fear of failure or disappointment. They feel that it is easiest, and therefore best if they they are told exactly what to do, when and how to do it.

Conclusion
Management and leadership play a very close role within businesses and need to have a good working environment to make sure that work is completed and employees remain motivated and happy and ultimately produce more work. Although they have a lot of difference not just with their environments but also with their personalities. but more changes have been happening at present therefore emphasis of leadership and management are still transforming and illustrations such as the Jigsaw can be used to identify and evaluate framework for patterns of behavior and leadership styles.

Bibliography:

Chemers, M, M. (1997) A Integrative Theory of Leadership. Pg 21

Mullins, L. (2007) Management and Organisational Behaviour. Eighth Edition. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

Mullins, L. (2008) Essentials of Organisational Behaviour. Second Edition. Financial Times: Prentice Hall. Pg. 289

Organisational Culture

The visible aspects of a business are normally to do with the formal organisation. These are the things than can be seen and are helpful to employees. For example goals strategy, the business structure, systems and procedures, financial resources and management. The hidden aspects are normally under informal organisations. For example, values, attitudes and beliefs.

Another way to use this is through the Iceberg Metaphor (French & Bell,1990) as you can see below. Above the waterline represents the visible aspects, these are normally taught to employees through written explanations and in lessons e.g. manners and how to behave. Below the water line represents the hidden aspects of a business. These are linked to day to day learning and behavior, For example what we understand, our assumptions and our values. 

Tesco's visible aspects would be their uniforms, their expectation to arrive on time and let the managers if they are absent. Their hidden aspects would be how polite they are to customers and their democratic leadership style. Employees are allowed to make suggestions if they prove to be useful.

There is also another theory which is called the Onion Theory. The Tomer-onion-Wood-Colby model says that an organisation is like an onion and that the outer layer is the visible aspect and as these layers are pealed off, the deeper and more hidden aspects of the company get. (Natale et al 1997) says the model could be integrated to generate a more sophisticated model of the relationship between paradigms. The onion model suggests that every organisation has a unique worldview, perhaps sharing aspects with other members of a particular industry, society or economic system.

Charles Handy was born in 1932 in Ireland and is a well know philosopher who has specialized in organizational culture. According to Handy's model, there are four types of culture which the organisations follow:

Power
There are some organizations where the power remains in the hands of only a few people and only they are authorized to take decisions. They are the ones who enjoy special privileges at the workplace, they are the most important people and are major decision makers. These individuals further delegate responsibilities to the other employees. In a business employees have no option but to strictly follow their superior's instructions, the employees do not have the liberty to express their views or share their ideas on an open forum and have to follow what there bosses say. The managers in such a type of culture sometimes can be partial to someone or the other leading to major unrest among others. (Kandula 2006) said that power culture is when a person or group of selected people created centralized system of administration and wield the entire authority within the corporation.

Task Culture
Organizations where teams are formed to achieve the targets or solve critical problems follow the task culture. In certain organisations individuals with common interests and specializing come together to form a team, there are generally four to five members in each team. In such a culture every team member has to contribute equally and accomplish tasks in the most innovative way. (Senior et al 2010) said that the task culture is said to flourish where creativity and innovation and needed particularly in organizations concerned with research and development, marketing, and advertising and new ventures.

Person Culture
There are certain organisations where the employees feel that they are more important than their organisation, such organisations follow a culture known as a person culture. In a person culture, individuals are more concerned about their own self rather than the organisation. The organisation in this culture will take a back seat and eventually suffer. Examples of person culture are barristers, chambers and doctors. Person cultures have minimal structures and can be likened to a cluster or a galaxy of individual stars. (Naoum 2001) example of person culture was that if a group of individuals decides that it is in their own interests to band together in order to do their own thing, share an office, a space or equipment or even a clerical and secretarial assistance, then the resulting organization would have a person culture.

Role Culture
Role culture is a culture where every employee is delegated roles and responsibilities according to his specialization, education qualification and interest to extract the best of the employer. In a culture employees decide what best they can do and willingly except the challenge. Everty individual is accountable for something or the other and has to take ownership of the work assigned to him or her. Power comes with responsibility in such a work culture. An example (White et al 1991) gave was within schools how a range of tasks which require routine and uniform handling, and the absence of routine procedures can be bothersome.

Culture itself applies significantly to the society which involves individuals that are usually different or groups of people that share something in common, for example similar or the same notions. Such a diversity of personalities among the people in the organisations may come across with the differentiation of beliefs, attitudes and even values or expectations.
The factors might have an impact on the business environment and the way people actually work (Mullins 2010). The awareness of who creates the work environment is important because corporations are in fact made from people. (Robbins et al 2009) said 'It is all about the employees perception of organisations characteristics such as its purposes, long term vision and its values.

I have come to the conclusion that a culture can have a major impact on an organisation and can show its pros  and cons, i have also seen that some organisations will have strong cultures and others have weak. A strong culture is when people tend to agree on the beliefs and values within the organisation. On the other hand weak culture can be when people disagree on the existing culture and instead form their own sub cultures. It is important to have a strong culture so you can survive and beat your competitive environment.

Bibliography:

Kandula, S.R. (2006) Performance Management: Strategies, Interventions, Drivers: New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Ltd.


Natale, M, S & Fenton, B, M (1997) Business Education and Training A Value-Laden Process. The Developing Professional: Maintaining Values in "Practical" Training. Volume Two. Pg 31


Naoum, S (2001) People and Organizational Managment in Construction: Strategy, Structure, Culture


Mullins, L, J. (2010) Management and Organisational Behaviour. Ninth Edition: Prentice-Hall: Financial Times


Robbins, S.P. & Judge, T, A. (2009) Organisational Behaviour: Global and Southern African Perspectives. Second Edition. Cape Town: Pearson Education South Africa.


Senior, B & Swailes, S. (2010) Organizational Change:Fourth Edition. Prentice-Hall: Financial Times. Pg 143

White, R. Martin & M. Stimson M (1991) The Handbook of Organizational Culture and Climate: Second Edition. Pg 300.